ChemWiki - User contributions [en]

It07:Ketamine

2007-12-05T15:24:53Z

Jms206: /* References */

= Ketamine =

<noinclude>

</noinclude>{| class="toccolours" border="1" style="float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border-collapse: collapse; width: 280px"
! {{chembox header}} | Ketamine
|-
| align="center" colspan="2" bgcolor="#ffffff" | [[Image:Ketamine.gif]] 
|-
! {{chembox header}} | General
|-
| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IUPAC Systematic name]
| 2-(2-chlorophenyl)-2-methylamino-cyclohexan-1-one

|-
| Other names
| Ketamine, K, Special K, Vitamin K
|-
| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_formula Molecular formula]
| C13H16ClNO
|-
| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molar_mass Molar mass]
| 237.725gmol-1
|-
| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CAS_registry_number CAS number]
| 6740-88-1
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Properties
|-

|-
| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boiling_point Boiling point]
| 266°C

|-
|}

Ketamine (2-(2-chlorophenyl)-2-methylamino-cyclohexan-1-one) is a dissasociative anaesthetic. It is widely used as a large animal tranquiliser in vetinary medicine, and a cheap, effective medicine for battlefield treatment in developing countries. It is also used recreationally, and is a class C illegal drug. The compound itself is enantiomeric, with the S-form being more physiologically active in humans<ref name="wiki">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketamine Ketamine on Wikipedia]</ref>.

= History =

Ketamine was developed as an alternative anaesthetic to PCP (Phencyclidine), after it was discovered that the latter caused hallucinations, mania, delirium and dissociation, as well as being neurotoxic<ref> [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phencyclidine PCP on Wikipedia]</ref>. It was first synthesised in 1962 by Calvin Stevens, and was found in clinical (animal) trials as “the most promising of 200 PCP derivatives”<ref>[http://www.metrohealthanesthesia.com/edu/ivanes/ketamine1.htm MetroHealth Medical Center Campus of Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Anaesthesia section, history of Ketamine]</ref>. Human use, both medicinal and recreational was first reported in 1965, with the drug being officially released for clinical use in 1970. There was extensive reported use on American soldiers during the Vietnam war <ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=12091028 Ketamine in war/tropical surgery]</ref>. In 1999, the drug was made a Schedule III controlled substance in the USA, primarily because of its applications as a date-rape drug. Following this, recreational use of ketamine has been made illegal in Hong Kong, Canada, and the UK (where it was made a class C drug in January 2006).

= Medical Use =

{| bgcolor="#ffffff" border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" align="right" width="167px" style="border-collapse: collapse; clear: right; margin: 0 0 0 0.5em"

|-
|'''[[Contraindication]]s:''' 
*Alcohol
*Other sedatives
*Stimulants
|-
|'''Side effects:'''
'''''Severe:'''''
*Detatchment from reality
*Sight impairment
*Loss of balance
*Distorted sense of time

'''''Cardiovascular:'''''
*Partial depressant

'''''Gastrointestinal:'''''
*Nausea

'''''Musculo skeletal:'''''
*Relaxant
*High doses - Perceived paralysis

'''''Neurological:'''''
*Analgesia
*Anasthesia
*Extended abuse - Memory loss

'''''Respiratory:'''''
*Partial depressant/stimulant
|}

== In Humans ==
As a medicinal drug, ketamine is injected intravenously or intramuscularly, usually as a general anaesthetic. It may also be used in small doses as a local anaesthetic, however, where it counteracts pain caused by altered/damaged nerve pathways (neuropathic pain), or repetitive neuron firing, such as in spinal sensitisation<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=16202956 Topical amitriptyline and ketamine in neuropathic pain syndromes: an open-label study]</ref>. Because the doses are so low in these cases, the side effects can be managed easily with other medication (usually benzodiazapene). These pain relieving (analgesic) effects are much more effective when the ketamine is combined with low-dose opioids, such as codiene<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=15621365 Ketamine and postoperative pain--a quantitative systematic review of randomised trials]</ref>. This combination may be used in the treatment of migraine, and is effective in treating the pain associated with cancers<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=10228376]</ref>.

Most available anaesthetics suppress the respiratory and circulatory systems, making them potentially dangerous to use on patients with an unknown medical history. Ketamine, however, stimulates these systems at anaesthetic doses, meaning less risk of heart failure, shock and asphyxiation during minor surgery<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=9451493 S-(+)-ketamine. Circulatory interactions during total intravenous anesthesia and analgesia-sedation]</ref>.

Ketamine is also in clinical trials for use as an antidepressant, and as an aid in breaking addiction to other recreational drugs. Along with other drugs of its type, abuse produces symptoms which are used as a clinical model for research into schizophrenia.

== In Animals ==

As a vetinary drug, ketamine is used on small animals in a similar capacity to that of humans, as well as as a continuous infusion analgesic to prevent the animal becoming aggressive due to pain. It is also used for pain management in large animals, particularly horses (hence the common colloquial description of the drug as a “horse tranquiliser” amongst those who are opposed to its use as a recreational drug.

= Pharmacology and Neurological effects =

Ketamine is a non-competitive antagonist of the NMDA receptor. NDMA receptors are present throughout the body, particularly the brain and spinal chord. They are particularly active during pain responses, hence the analgesic effect of ketamine blocking the receptors.
Ketamine is synthesized as a racemic mix. The S-enantiomer has approximately four times the binding affinity to the NMDA receptor of the R-enantiomer<ref>[http://sulcus.berkeley.edu/mcb/165_001/papers/manuscripts/_962.html Properties of Ketamine]</ref>. As it also has less side effects, it is sometimes preferred to the racemic mix for surgery<ref name="wiki" />.

As a recreational drug, it produces short-lived hallucinogenic effects, which are only visible against backgrounds such as darkness which have little sensory stimulation. Hallucinogenic effects only last around 15 minutes, with the associated analgesia lasting around 2 hours maximum. The “trip” brought on by recreational use of ketamine is described as:

<blockquote>
Effects include changes in the perception of distances, relative scale, colour and durations/time, as well as a slowing of the visual system's ability to update what the user is seeing. There are reports of high-dosage users being able to see their surroundings in two sharp images, as if the brain is unable to merge the images each eye is sending. Speech often sounds unintelligible i.e. alogia, and auditory hallucinations may occur. At high doses sounds can be out of sync with the user's visual field. Ketamine at high doses produces a dissociative state, characterised by a sense of detachment from one's physical body and the external world[...] Some users may not remember this part of the experience after regaining consciousness, in the same way that a person may forget a dream. Owing to the role of the NMDA receptor in long-term potentiation, this may be due to disturbances in memory formation. The "re-integration" process is slow, and the user gradually becomes aware of surroundings. At first, users may not remember their own names, or even know that they are human, or what that means. Movement is extremely difficult, and a user may not be aware that he or she has a body at all.

—''[[Ketamine]]'', on [[Wikpedia]]
</blockquote>

Ketamine’s effects on the brain have been shown to take place in the Hippocampus (long-term memory and spatial navigation centre) and prefrontal cortex (alertness and emotional response centre). This explains the side effect of memory loss, and the spatial hallucinations experienced by recreational users. The prefrontal cortex also regulates the areas of the brain responsible for consciousness, hence the detachment and anesthesia experienced by high-dose users.

=Recreactional Use=

Recreational use of Ketamine was first reported in 1965. It can be purchased over the counter in veterinary clinics in Mexico, where it is then diverted and sold for recreational use.

Ketamine can be insufflated, injected, or ingested dissolved in beverages. It can also be smoked, usually mixed with marijuana or tobacco. Oral administration produces a longer trip, but requires a larger dose. Injection is relatively uncommon, although possible. Smoking ketamine produces a faster high than other methods.

= References =
<references />

It07:Ketamine

2007-12-05T15:24:06Z

Jms206: /* References */

It07:Ketamine

2007-12-05T15:23:38Z

Jms206: /* References */

It07:Ketamine

2007-12-05T15:22:31Z

Jms206: /* References */

It07:Ketamine

2007-12-05T15:22:07Z

Jms206: /* Pharmacology and Neurological effects */

It07:Ketamine

2007-12-05T15:21:41Z

Jms206: /* Medical Use */

= Ketamine =

<noinclude>

</noinclude>{| class="toccolours" border="1" style="float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border-collapse: collapse; width: 280px"
! {{chembox header}} | Ketamine
|-
| align="center" colspan="2" bgcolor="#ffffff" | [[Image:Ketamine.gif]] 
|-
! {{chembox header}} | General
|-
| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IUPAC Systematic name]
| 2-(2-chlorophenyl)-2-methylamino-cyclohexan-1-one

|-
| Other names
| Ketamine, K, Special K, Vitamin K
|-
| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_formula Molecular formula]
| C13H16ClNO
|-
| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molar_mass Molar mass]
| 237.725gmol-1
|-
| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CAS_registry_number CAS number]
| 6740-88-1
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Properties
|-

|-
| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boiling_point Boiling point]
| 266°C

|-
|}

Ketamine (2-(2-chlorophenyl)-2-methylamino-cyclohexan-1-one) is a dissasociative anaesthetic. It is widely used as a large animal tranquiliser in vetinary medicine, and a cheap, effective medicine for battlefield treatment in developing countries. It is also used recreationally, and is a class C illegal drug. The compound itself is enantiomeric, with the S-form being more physiologically active in humans<ref name="wiki">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketamine Ketamine on Wikipedia]</ref>.

= History =

Ketamine was developed as an alternative anaesthetic to PCP (Phencyclidine), after it was discovered that the latter caused hallucinations, mania, delirium and dissociation, as well as being neurotoxic<ref> [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phencyclidine PCP on Wikipedia]</ref>. It was first synthesised in 1962 by Calvin Stevens, and was found in clinical (animal) trials as “the most promising of 200 PCP derivatives”<ref>[http://www.metrohealthanesthesia.com/edu/ivanes/ketamine1.htm MetroHealth Medical Center Campus of Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Anaesthesia section, history of Ketamine]</ref>. Human use, both medicinal and recreational was first reported in 1965, with the drug being officially released for clinical use in 1970. There was extensive reported use on American soldiers during the Vietnam war <ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=12091028 Ketamine in war/tropical surgery]</ref>. In 1999, the drug was made a Schedule III controlled substance in the USA, primarily because of its applications as a date-rape drug. Following this, recreational use of ketamine has been made illegal in Hong Kong, Canada, and the UK (where it was made a class C drug in January 2006).

= Medical Use =

{| bgcolor="#ffffff" border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" align="right" width="167px" style="border-collapse: collapse; clear: right; margin: 0 0 0 0.5em"

|-
|'''[[Contraindication]]s:''' 
*Alcohol
*Other sedatives
*Stimulants
|-
|'''Side effects:'''
'''''Severe:'''''
*Detatchment from reality
*Sight impairment
*Loss of balance
*Distorted sense of time

'''''Cardiovascular:'''''
*Partial depressant

'''''Gastrointestinal:'''''
*Nausea

'''''Musculo skeletal:'''''
*Relaxant
*High doses - Perceived paralysis

'''''Neurological:'''''
*Analgesia
*Anasthesia
*Extended abuse - Memory loss

'''''Respiratory:'''''
*Partial depressant/stimulant
|}

== In Humans ==
As a medicinal drug, ketamine is injected intravenously or intramuscularly, usually as a general anaesthetic. It may also be used in small doses as a local anaesthetic, however, where it counteracts pain caused by altered/damaged nerve pathways (neuropathic pain), or repetitive neuron firing, such as in spinal sensitisation<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=16202956 Topical amitriptyline and ketamine in neuropathic pain syndromes: an open-label study]</ref>. Because the doses are so low in these cases, the side effects can be managed easily with other medication (usually benzodiazapene). These pain relieving (analgesic) effects are much more effective when the ketamine is combined with low-dose opioids, such as codiene<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=15621365 Ketamine and postoperative pain--a quantitative systematic review of randomised trials]</ref>. This combination may be used in the treatment of migraine, and is effective in treating the pain associated with cancers<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=10228376]</ref>.

Most available anaesthetics suppress the respiratory and circulatory systems, making them potentially dangerous to use on patients with an unknown medical history. Ketamine, however, stimulates these systems at anaesthetic doses, meaning less risk of heart failure, shock and asphyxiation during minor surgery<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=9451493 S-(+)-ketamine. Circulatory interactions during total intravenous anesthesia and analgesia-sedation]</ref>.

Ketamine is also in clinical trials for use as an antidepressant, and as an aid in breaking addiction to other recreational drugs. Along with other drugs of its type, abuse produces symptoms which are used as a clinical model for research into schizophrenia.

== In Animals ==

As a vetinary drug, ketamine is used on small animals in a similar capacity to that of humans, as well as as a continuous infusion analgesic to prevent the animal becoming aggressive due to pain. It is also used for pain management in large animals, particularly horses (hence the common colloquial description of the drug as a “horse tranquiliser” amongst those who are opposed to its use as a recreational drug.

= Pharmacology and Neurological effects =

Ketamine is a non-competitive antagonist of the NMDA receptor. NDMA receptors are present throughout the body, particularly the brain and spinal chord. They are particularly active during pain responses, hence the analgesic effect of ketamine blocking the receptors.
Ketamine is synthesized as a racemic mix. The S-enantiomer has approximately four times the binding affinity to the NMDA receptor of the R-enantiomer<ref>Properties of Ketamine {{http://sulcus.berkeley.edu/mcb/165_001/papers/manuscripts/_962.html}}</ref>. As it also has less side effects, it is sometimes preferred to the racemic mix for surgery<ref name="wiki" />.

As a recreational drug, it produces short-lived hallucinogenic effects, which are only visible against backgrounds such as darkness which have little sensory stimulation. Hallucinogenic effects only last around 15 minutes, with the associated analgesia lasting around 2 hours maximum. The “trip” brought on by recreational use of ketamine is described as:

<blockquote>
Effects include changes in the perception of distances, relative scale, colour and durations/time, as well as a slowing of the visual system's ability to update what the user is seeing. There are reports of high-dosage users being able to see their surroundings in two sharp images, as if the brain is unable to merge the images each eye is sending. Speech often sounds unintelligible i.e. alogia, and auditory hallucinations may occur. At high doses sounds can be out of sync with the user's visual field. Ketamine at high doses produces a dissociative state, characterised by a sense of detachment from one's physical body and the external world[...] Some users may not remember this part of the experience after regaining consciousness, in the same way that a person may forget a dream. Owing to the role of the NMDA receptor in long-term potentiation, this may be due to disturbances in memory formation. The "re-integration" process is slow, and the user gradually becomes aware of surroundings. At first, users may not remember their own names, or even know that they are human, or what that means. Movement is extremely difficult, and a user may not be aware that he or she has a body at all.

—''[[Ketamine]]'', on [[Wikpedia]]
</blockquote>

Ketamine’s effects on the brain have been shown to take place in the Hippocampus (long-term memory and spatial navigation centre) and prefrontal cortex (alertness and emotional response centre). This explains the side effect of memory loss, and the spatial hallucinations experienced by recreational users. The prefrontal cortex also regulates the areas of the brain responsible for consciousness, hence the detachment and anesthesia experienced by high-dose users.

=Recreactional Use=

Recreational use of Ketamine was first reported in 1965. It can be purchased over the counter in veterinary clinics in Mexico, where it is then diverted and sold for recreational use.

Ketamine can be insufflated, injected, or ingested dissolved in beverages. It can also be smoked, usually mixed with marijuana or tobacco. Oral administration produces a longer trip, but requires a larger dose. Injection is relatively uncommon, although possible. Smoking ketamine produces a faster high than other methods.

=== References ===
<references />

It07:Ketamine

2007-12-05T15:20:10Z

Jms206: /* History */

= Ketamine =

<noinclude>

</noinclude>{| class="toccolours" border="1" style="float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border-collapse: collapse; width: 280px"
! {{chembox header}} | Ketamine
|-
| align="center" colspan="2" bgcolor="#ffffff" | [[Image:Ketamine.gif]] 
|-
! {{chembox header}} | General
|-
| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IUPAC Systematic name]
| 2-(2-chlorophenyl)-2-methylamino-cyclohexan-1-one

|-
| Other names
| Ketamine, K, Special K, Vitamin K
|-
| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_formula Molecular formula]
| C13H16ClNO
|-
| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molar_mass Molar mass]
| 237.725gmol-1
|-
| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CAS_registry_number CAS number]
| 6740-88-1
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Properties
|-

|-
| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boiling_point Boiling point]
| 266°C

|-
|}

Ketamine (2-(2-chlorophenyl)-2-methylamino-cyclohexan-1-one) is a dissasociative anaesthetic. It is widely used as a large animal tranquiliser in vetinary medicine, and a cheap, effective medicine for battlefield treatment in developing countries. It is also used recreationally, and is a class C illegal drug. The compound itself is enantiomeric, with the S-form being more physiologically active in humans<ref name="wiki">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketamine Ketamine on Wikipedia]</ref>.

= History =

Ketamine was developed as an alternative anaesthetic to PCP (Phencyclidine), after it was discovered that the latter caused hallucinations, mania, delirium and dissociation, as well as being neurotoxic<ref> [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phencyclidine PCP on Wikipedia]</ref>. It was first synthesised in 1962 by Calvin Stevens, and was found in clinical (animal) trials as “the most promising of 200 PCP derivatives”<ref>[http://www.metrohealthanesthesia.com/edu/ivanes/ketamine1.htm MetroHealth Medical Center Campus of Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Anaesthesia section, history of Ketamine]</ref>. Human use, both medicinal and recreational was first reported in 1965, with the drug being officially released for clinical use in 1970. There was extensive reported use on American soldiers during the Vietnam war <ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=12091028 Ketamine in war/tropical surgery]</ref>. In 1999, the drug was made a Schedule III controlled substance in the USA, primarily because of its applications as a date-rape drug. Following this, recreational use of ketamine has been made illegal in Hong Kong, Canada, and the UK (where it was made a class C drug in January 2006).

= Medical Use =

{| bgcolor="#ffffff" border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" align="right" width="167px" style="border-collapse: collapse; clear: right; margin: 0 0 0 0.5em"

|-
|'''[[Contraindication]]s:''' 
*Alcohol
*Other sedatives
*Stimulants
|-
|'''Side effects:'''
'''''Severe:'''''
*Detatchment from reality
*Sight impairment
*Loss of balance
*Distorted sense of time

'''''Cardiovascular:'''''
*Partial depressant

'''''Gastrointestinal:'''''
*Nausea

'''''Musculo skeletal:'''''
*Relaxant
*High doses - Perceived paralysis

'''''Neurological:'''''
*Analgesia
*Anasthesia
*Extended abuse - Memory loss

'''''Respiratory:'''''
*Partial depressant/stimulant
|}

== In Humans ==
As a medicinal drug, ketamine is injected intravenously or intramuscularly, usually as a general anaesthetic. It may also be used in small doses as a local anaesthetic, however, where it counteracts pain caused by altered/damaged nerve pathways (neuropathic pain), or repetitive neuron firing, such as in spinal sensitisation<ref>Topical amitriptyline and ketamine in neuropathic pain syndromes: an open-label study {{http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=16202956}}</ref>. Because the doses are so low in these cases, the side effects can be managed easily with other medication (usually benzodiazapene). These pain relieving (analgesic) effects are much more effective when the ketamine is combined with low-dose opioids, such as codiene<ref>Ketamine and postoperative pain--a quantitative systematic review of randomised trials {{http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=15621365}}</ref>. This combination may be used in the treatment of migraine, and is effective in treating the pain associated with cancers<ref>{{http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=10228376}}</ref>.

Most available anaesthetics suppress the respiratory and circulatory systems, making them potentially dangerous to use on patients with an unknown medical history. Ketamine, however, stimulates these systems at anaesthetic doses, meaning less risk of heart failure, shock and asphyxiation during minor surgery<ref>S-(+)-ketamine. Circulatory interactions during total intravenous anesthesia and analgesia-sedation{{http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=9451493}}</ref>.

Ketamine is also in clinical trials for use as an antidepressant, and as an aid in breaking addiction to other recreational drugs. Along with other drugs of its type, abuse produces symptoms which are used as a clinical model for research into schizophrenia.

== In Animals ==

As a vetinary drug, ketamine is used on small animals in a similar capacity to that of humans, as well as as a continuous infusion analgesic to prevent the animal becoming aggressive due to pain. It is also used for pain management in large animals, particularly horses (hence the common colloquial description of the drug as a “horse tranquiliser” amongst those who are opposed to its use as a recreational drug.

= Pharmacology and Neurological effects =

Ketamine is a non-competitive antagonist of the NMDA receptor. NDMA receptors are present throughout the body, particularly the brain and spinal chord. They are particularly active during pain responses, hence the analgesic effect of ketamine blocking the receptors.
Ketamine is synthesized as a racemic mix. The S-enantiomer has approximately four times the binding affinity to the NMDA receptor of the R-enantiomer<ref>Properties of Ketamine {{http://sulcus.berkeley.edu/mcb/165_001/papers/manuscripts/_962.html}}</ref>. As it also has less side effects, it is sometimes preferred to the racemic mix for surgery<ref name="wiki" />.

As a recreational drug, it produces short-lived hallucinogenic effects, which are only visible against backgrounds such as darkness which have little sensory stimulation. Hallucinogenic effects only last around 15 minutes, with the associated analgesia lasting around 2 hours maximum. The “trip” brought on by recreational use of ketamine is described as:

<blockquote>
Effects include changes in the perception of distances, relative scale, colour and durations/time, as well as a slowing of the visual system's ability to update what the user is seeing. There are reports of high-dosage users being able to see their surroundings in two sharp images, as if the brain is unable to merge the images each eye is sending. Speech often sounds unintelligible i.e. alogia, and auditory hallucinations may occur. At high doses sounds can be out of sync with the user's visual field. Ketamine at high doses produces a dissociative state, characterised by a sense of detachment from one's physical body and the external world[...] Some users may not remember this part of the experience after regaining consciousness, in the same way that a person may forget a dream. Owing to the role of the NMDA receptor in long-term potentiation, this may be due to disturbances in memory formation. The "re-integration" process is slow, and the user gradually becomes aware of surroundings. At first, users may not remember their own names, or even know that they are human, or what that means. Movement is extremely difficult, and a user may not be aware that he or she has a body at all.

—''[[Ketamine]]'', on [[Wikpedia]]
</blockquote>

Ketamine’s effects on the brain have been shown to take place in the Hippocampus (long-term memory and spatial navigation centre) and prefrontal cortex (alertness and emotional response centre). This explains the side effect of memory loss, and the spatial hallucinations experienced by recreational users. The prefrontal cortex also regulates the areas of the brain responsible for consciousness, hence the detachment and anesthesia experienced by high-dose users.

=Recreactional Use=

Recreational use of Ketamine was first reported in 1965. It can be purchased over the counter in veterinary clinics in Mexico, where it is then diverted and sold for recreational use.

Ketamine can be insufflated, injected, or ingested dissolved in beverages. It can also be smoked, usually mixed with marijuana or tobacco. Oral administration produces a longer trip, but requires a larger dose. Injection is relatively uncommon, although possible. Smoking ketamine produces a faster high than other methods.

=== References ===
<references />

It07:Ketamine

2007-12-05T15:18:43Z

Jms206: /* Ketamine */

= Ketamine =

<noinclude>

</noinclude>{| class="toccolours" border="1" style="float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border-collapse: collapse; width: 280px"
! {{chembox header}} | Ketamine
|-
| align="center" colspan="2" bgcolor="#ffffff" | [[Image:Ketamine.gif]] 
|-
! {{chembox header}} | General
|-
| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IUPAC Systematic name]
| 2-(2-chlorophenyl)-2-methylamino-cyclohexan-1-one

|-
| Other names
| Ketamine, K, Special K, Vitamin K
|-
| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_formula Molecular formula]
| C13H16ClNO
|-
| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molar_mass Molar mass]
| 237.725gmol-1
|-
| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CAS_registry_number CAS number]
| 6740-88-1
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Properties
|-

|-
| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boiling_point Boiling point]
| 266°C

|-
|}

Ketamine (2-(2-chlorophenyl)-2-methylamino-cyclohexan-1-one) is a dissasociative anaesthetic. It is widely used as a large animal tranquiliser in vetinary medicine, and a cheap, effective medicine for battlefield treatment in developing countries. It is also used recreationally, and is a class C illegal drug. The compound itself is enantiomeric, with the S-form being more physiologically active in humans<ref name="wiki">[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketamine Ketamine on Wikipedia]</ref>.

= History =

Ketamine was developed as an alternative anaesthetic to PCP (Phencyclidine), after it was discovered that the latter caused hallucinations, mania, delirium and dissociation, as well as being neurotoxic<ref>PCP on Wikipedia {http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phencyclidine}</ref>. It was first synthesised in 1962 by Calvin Stevens, and was found in clinical (animal) trials as “the most promising of 200 PCP derivatives”<ref>MetroHealth Medical Center Campus of Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Anaesthesia section, history of Ketamine {{http://www.metrohealthanesthesia.com/edu/ivanes/ketamine1.htm}}</ref>. Human use, both medicinal and recreational was first reported in 1965, with the drug being officially released for clinical use in 1970. There was extensive reported use on American soldiers during the Vietnam war <ref>Ketamine in war/tropical surgery {{http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=12091028}}</ref>. In 1999, the drug was made a Schedule III controlled substance in the USA, primarily because of its applications as a date-rape drug. Following this, recreational use of ketamine has been made illegal in Hong Kong, Canada, and the UK (where it was made a class C drug in January 2006).

= Medical Use =

{| bgcolor="#ffffff" border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" align="right" width="167px" style="border-collapse: collapse; clear: right; margin: 0 0 0 0.5em"

|-
|'''[[Contraindication]]s:''' 
*Alcohol
*Other sedatives
*Stimulants
|-
|'''Side effects:'''
'''''Severe:'''''
*Detatchment from reality
*Sight impairment
*Loss of balance
*Distorted sense of time

'''''Cardiovascular:'''''
*Partial depressant

'''''Gastrointestinal:'''''
*Nausea

'''''Musculo skeletal:'''''
*Relaxant
*High doses - Perceived paralysis

'''''Neurological:'''''
*Analgesia
*Anasthesia
*Extended abuse - Memory loss

'''''Respiratory:'''''
*Partial depressant/stimulant
|}

== In Humans ==
As a medicinal drug, ketamine is injected intravenously or intramuscularly, usually as a general anaesthetic. It may also be used in small doses as a local anaesthetic, however, where it counteracts pain caused by altered/damaged nerve pathways (neuropathic pain), or repetitive neuron firing, such as in spinal sensitisation<ref>Topical amitriptyline and ketamine in neuropathic pain syndromes: an open-label study {{http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=16202956}}</ref>. Because the doses are so low in these cases, the side effects can be managed easily with other medication (usually benzodiazapene). These pain relieving (analgesic) effects are much more effective when the ketamine is combined with low-dose opioids, such as codiene<ref>Ketamine and postoperative pain--a quantitative systematic review of randomised trials {{http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=15621365}}</ref>. This combination may be used in the treatment of migraine, and is effective in treating the pain associated with cancers<ref>{{http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=10228376}}</ref>.

Most available anaesthetics suppress the respiratory and circulatory systems, making them potentially dangerous to use on patients with an unknown medical history. Ketamine, however, stimulates these systems at anaesthetic doses, meaning less risk of heart failure, shock and asphyxiation during minor surgery<ref>S-(+)-ketamine. Circulatory interactions during total intravenous anesthesia and analgesia-sedation{{http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=9451493}}</ref>.

Ketamine is also in clinical trials for use as an antidepressant, and as an aid in breaking addiction to other recreational drugs. Along with other drugs of its type, abuse produces symptoms which are used as a clinical model for research into schizophrenia.

== In Animals ==

As a vetinary drug, ketamine is used on small animals in a similar capacity to that of humans, as well as as a continuous infusion analgesic to prevent the animal becoming aggressive due to pain. It is also used for pain management in large animals, particularly horses (hence the common colloquial description of the drug as a “horse tranquiliser” amongst those who are opposed to its use as a recreational drug.

= Pharmacology and Neurological effects =

Ketamine is a non-competitive antagonist of the NMDA receptor. NDMA receptors are present throughout the body, particularly the brain and spinal chord. They are particularly active during pain responses, hence the analgesic effect of ketamine blocking the receptors.
Ketamine is synthesized as a racemic mix. The S-enantiomer has approximately four times the binding affinity to the NMDA receptor of the R-enantiomer<ref>Properties of Ketamine {{http://sulcus.berkeley.edu/mcb/165_001/papers/manuscripts/_962.html}}</ref>. As it also has less side effects, it is sometimes preferred to the racemic mix for surgery<ref name="wiki" />.

As a recreational drug, it produces short-lived hallucinogenic effects, which are only visible against backgrounds such as darkness which have little sensory stimulation. Hallucinogenic effects only last around 15 minutes, with the associated analgesia lasting around 2 hours maximum. The “trip” brought on by recreational use of ketamine is described as:

<blockquote>
Effects include changes in the perception of distances, relative scale, colour and durations/time, as well as a slowing of the visual system's ability to update what the user is seeing. There are reports of high-dosage users being able to see their surroundings in two sharp images, as if the brain is unable to merge the images each eye is sending. Speech often sounds unintelligible i.e. alogia, and auditory hallucinations may occur. At high doses sounds can be out of sync with the user's visual field. Ketamine at high doses produces a dissociative state, characterised by a sense of detachment from one's physical body and the external world[...] Some users may not remember this part of the experience after regaining consciousness, in the same way that a person may forget a dream. Owing to the role of the NMDA receptor in long-term potentiation, this may be due to disturbances in memory formation. The "re-integration" process is slow, and the user gradually becomes aware of surroundings. At first, users may not remember their own names, or even know that they are human, or what that means. Movement is extremely difficult, and a user may not be aware that he or she has a body at all.

—''[[Ketamine]]'', on [[Wikpedia]]
</blockquote>

Ketamine’s effects on the brain have been shown to take place in the Hippocampus (long-term memory and spatial navigation centre) and prefrontal cortex (alertness and emotional response centre). This explains the side effect of memory loss, and the spatial hallucinations experienced by recreational users. The prefrontal cortex also regulates the areas of the brain responsible for consciousness, hence the detachment and anesthesia experienced by high-dose users.

=Recreactional Use=

Recreational use of Ketamine was first reported in 1965. It can be purchased over the counter in veterinary clinics in Mexico, where it is then diverted and sold for recreational use.

Ketamine can be insufflated, injected, or ingested dissolved in beverages. It can also be smoked, usually mixed with marijuana or tobacco. Oral administration produces a longer trip, but requires a larger dose. Injection is relatively uncommon, although possible. Smoking ketamine produces a faster high than other methods.

=== References ===
<references />

It07:Ketamine

2007-12-05T15:17:39Z

Jms206: /* History */

= Ketamine =

<noinclude>

</noinclude>{| class="toccolours" border="1" style="float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border-collapse: collapse; width: 280px"
! {{chembox header}} | Ketamine
|-
| align="center" colspan="2" bgcolor="#ffffff" | [[Image:Ketamine.gif]] 
|-
! {{chembox header}} | General
|-
| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IUPAC Systematic name]
| 2-(2-chlorophenyl)-2-methylamino-cyclohexan-1-one

|-
| Other names
| Ketamine, K, Special K, Vitamin K
|-
| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_formula Molecular formula]
| C13H16ClNO
|-
| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molar_mass Molar mass]
| 237.725gmol-1
|-
| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CAS_registry_number CAS number]
| 6740-88-1
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Properties
|-

|-
| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boiling_point Boiling point]
| 266°C

|-
|}

Ketamine (2-(2-chlorophenyl)-2-methylamino-cyclohexan-1-one) is a dissasociative anaesthetic. It is widely used as a large animal tranquiliser in vetinary medicine, and a cheap, effective medicine for battlefield treatment in developing countries. It is also used recreationally, and is a class C illegal drug. The compound itself is enantiomeric, with the S-form being more physiologically active in humans<ref name="wiki">Ketamine on Wikipedia {{http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketamine}}</ref>.

= History =

Ketamine was developed as an alternative anaesthetic to PCP (Phencyclidine), after it was discovered that the latter caused hallucinations, mania, delirium and dissociation, as well as being neurotoxic<ref>PCP on Wikipedia {http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phencyclidine}</ref>. It was first synthesised in 1962 by Calvin Stevens, and was found in clinical (animal) trials as “the most promising of 200 PCP derivatives”<ref>MetroHealth Medical Center Campus of Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Anaesthesia section, history of Ketamine {{http://www.metrohealthanesthesia.com/edu/ivanes/ketamine1.htm}}</ref>. Human use, both medicinal and recreational was first reported in 1965, with the drug being officially released for clinical use in 1970. There was extensive reported use on American soldiers during the Vietnam war <ref>Ketamine in war/tropical surgery {{http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=12091028}}</ref>. In 1999, the drug was made a Schedule III controlled substance in the USA, primarily because of its applications as a date-rape drug. Following this, recreational use of ketamine has been made illegal in Hong Kong, Canada, and the UK (where it was made a class C drug in January 2006).

= Medical Use =

{| bgcolor="#ffffff" border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" align="right" width="167px" style="border-collapse: collapse; clear: right; margin: 0 0 0 0.5em"

|-
|'''[[Contraindication]]s:''' 
*Alcohol
*Other sedatives
*Stimulants
|-
|'''Side effects:'''
'''''Severe:'''''
*Detatchment from reality
*Sight impairment
*Loss of balance
*Distorted sense of time

'''''Cardiovascular:'''''
*Partial depressant

'''''Gastrointestinal:'''''
*Nausea

'''''Musculo skeletal:'''''
*Relaxant
*High doses - Perceived paralysis

'''''Neurological:'''''
*Analgesia
*Anasthesia
*Extended abuse - Memory loss

'''''Respiratory:'''''
*Partial depressant/stimulant
|}

== In Humans ==
As a medicinal drug, ketamine is injected intravenously or intramuscularly, usually as a general anaesthetic. It may also be used in small doses as a local anaesthetic, however, where it counteracts pain caused by altered/damaged nerve pathways (neuropathic pain), or repetitive neuron firing, such as in spinal sensitisation<ref>Topical amitriptyline and ketamine in neuropathic pain syndromes: an open-label study {{http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=16202956}}</ref>. Because the doses are so low in these cases, the side effects can be managed easily with other medication (usually benzodiazapene). These pain relieving (analgesic) effects are much more effective when the ketamine is combined with low-dose opioids, such as codiene<ref>Ketamine and postoperative pain--a quantitative systematic review of randomised trials {{http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=15621365}}</ref>. This combination may be used in the treatment of migraine, and is effective in treating the pain associated with cancers<ref>{{http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=10228376}}</ref>.

Most available anaesthetics suppress the respiratory and circulatory systems, making them potentially dangerous to use on patients with an unknown medical history. Ketamine, however, stimulates these systems at anaesthetic doses, meaning less risk of heart failure, shock and asphyxiation during minor surgery<ref>S-(+)-ketamine. Circulatory interactions during total intravenous anesthesia and analgesia-sedation{{http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=9451493}}</ref>.

Ketamine is also in clinical trials for use as an antidepressant, and as an aid in breaking addiction to other recreational drugs. Along with other drugs of its type, abuse produces symptoms which are used as a clinical model for research into schizophrenia.

== In Animals ==

As a vetinary drug, ketamine is used on small animals in a similar capacity to that of humans, as well as as a continuous infusion analgesic to prevent the animal becoming aggressive due to pain. It is also used for pain management in large animals, particularly horses (hence the common colloquial description of the drug as a “horse tranquiliser” amongst those who are opposed to its use as a recreational drug.

= Pharmacology and Neurological effects =

Ketamine is a non-competitive antagonist of the NMDA receptor. NDMA receptors are present throughout the body, particularly the brain and spinal chord. They are particularly active during pain responses, hence the analgesic effect of ketamine blocking the receptors.
Ketamine is synthesized as a racemic mix. The S-enantiomer has approximately four times the binding affinity to the NMDA receptor of the R-enantiomer<ref>Properties of Ketamine {{http://sulcus.berkeley.edu/mcb/165_001/papers/manuscripts/_962.html}}</ref>. As it also has less side effects, it is sometimes preferred to the racemic mix for surgery<ref name="wiki" />.

As a recreational drug, it produces short-lived hallucinogenic effects, which are only visible against backgrounds such as darkness which have little sensory stimulation. Hallucinogenic effects only last around 15 minutes, with the associated analgesia lasting around 2 hours maximum. The “trip” brought on by recreational use of ketamine is described as:

<blockquote>
Effects include changes in the perception of distances, relative scale, colour and durations/time, as well as a slowing of the visual system's ability to update what the user is seeing. There are reports of high-dosage users being able to see their surroundings in two sharp images, as if the brain is unable to merge the images each eye is sending. Speech often sounds unintelligible i.e. alogia, and auditory hallucinations may occur. At high doses sounds can be out of sync with the user's visual field. Ketamine at high doses produces a dissociative state, characterised by a sense of detachment from one's physical body and the external world[...] Some users may not remember this part of the experience after regaining consciousness, in the same way that a person may forget a dream. Owing to the role of the NMDA receptor in long-term potentiation, this may be due to disturbances in memory formation. The "re-integration" process is slow, and the user gradually becomes aware of surroundings. At first, users may not remember their own names, or even know that they are human, or what that means. Movement is extremely difficult, and a user may not be aware that he or she has a body at all.

—''[[Ketamine]]'', on [[Wikpedia]]
</blockquote>

Ketamine’s effects on the brain have been shown to take place in the Hippocampus (long-term memory and spatial navigation centre) and prefrontal cortex (alertness and emotional response centre). This explains the side effect of memory loss, and the spatial hallucinations experienced by recreational users. The prefrontal cortex also regulates the areas of the brain responsible for consciousness, hence the detachment and anesthesia experienced by high-dose users.

=Recreactional Use=

Recreational use of Ketamine was first reported in 1965. It can be purchased over the counter in veterinary clinics in Mexico, where it is then diverted and sold for recreational use.

Ketamine can be insufflated, injected, or ingested dissolved in beverages. It can also be smoked, usually mixed with marijuana or tobacco. Oral administration produces a longer trip, but requires a larger dose. Injection is relatively uncommon, although possible. Smoking ketamine produces a faster high than other methods.

=== References ===
<references />

It07:Ketamine

2007-12-05T15:15:06Z

Jms206: /* History */

= Ketamine =

<noinclude>

</noinclude>{| class="toccolours" border="1" style="float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border-collapse: collapse; width: 280px"
! {{chembox header}} | Ketamine
|-
| align="center" colspan="2" bgcolor="#ffffff" | [[Image:Ketamine.gif]] 
|-
! {{chembox header}} | General
|-
| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IUPAC Systematic name]
| 2-(2-chlorophenyl)-2-methylamino-cyclohexan-1-one

|-
| Other names
| Ketamine, K, Special K, Vitamin K
|-
| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_formula Molecular formula]
| C13H16ClNO
|-
| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molar_mass Molar mass]
| 237.725gmol-1
|-
| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CAS_registry_number CAS number]
| 6740-88-1
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Properties
|-

|-
| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boiling_point Boiling point]
| 266°C

|-
|}

Ketamine (2-(2-chlorophenyl)-2-methylamino-cyclohexan-1-one) is a dissasociative anaesthetic. It is widely used as a large animal tranquiliser in vetinary medicine, and a cheap, effective medicine for battlefield treatment in developing countries. It is also used recreationally, and is a class C illegal drug. The compound itself is enantiomeric, with the S-form being more physiologically active in humans<ref name="wiki">Ketamine on Wikipedia {{http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketamine}}</ref>.

= History =

Ketamine was developed as an alternative anaesthetic to PCP (Phencyclidine), after it was discovered that the latter caused hallucinations, mania, delirium and dissociation, as well as being neurotoxic<ref>PCP on Wikipedia {{DOI|http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phencyclidine}}</ref>. It was first synthesised in 1962 by Calvin Stevens, and was found in clinical (animal) trials as “the most promising of 200 PCP derivatives”<ref>MetroHealth Medical Center Campus of Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Anaesthesia section, history of Ketamine {{http://www.metrohealthanesthesia.com/edu/ivanes/ketamine1.htm}}</ref>. Human use, both medicinal and recreational was first reported in 1965, with the drug being officially released for clinical use in 1970. There was extensive reported use on American soldiers during the Vietnam war <ref>Ketamine in war/tropical surgery {{http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=12091028}}</ref>. In 1999, the drug was made a Schedule III controlled substance in the USA, primarily because of its applications as a date-rape drug. Following this, recreational use of ketamine has been made illegal in Hong Kong, Canada, and the UK (where it was made a class C drug in January 2006).

= Medical Use =

{| bgcolor="#ffffff" border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" align="right" width="167px" style="border-collapse: collapse; clear: right; margin: 0 0 0 0.5em"

|-
|'''[[Contraindication]]s:''' 
*Alcohol
*Other sedatives
*Stimulants
|-
|'''Side effects:'''
'''''Severe:'''''
*Detatchment from reality
*Sight impairment
*Loss of balance
*Distorted sense of time

'''''Cardiovascular:'''''
*Partial depressant

'''''Gastrointestinal:'''''
*Nausea

'''''Musculo skeletal:'''''
*Relaxant
*High doses - Perceived paralysis

'''''Neurological:'''''
*Analgesia
*Anasthesia
*Extended abuse - Memory loss

'''''Respiratory:'''''
*Partial depressant/stimulant
|}

== In Humans ==
As a medicinal drug, ketamine is injected intravenously or intramuscularly, usually as a general anaesthetic. It may also be used in small doses as a local anaesthetic, however, where it counteracts pain caused by altered/damaged nerve pathways (neuropathic pain), or repetitive neuron firing, such as in spinal sensitisation<ref>Topical amitriptyline and ketamine in neuropathic pain syndromes: an open-label study {{http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=16202956}}</ref>. Because the doses are so low in these cases, the side effects can be managed easily with other medication (usually benzodiazapene). These pain relieving (analgesic) effects are much more effective when the ketamine is combined with low-dose opioids, such as codiene<ref>Ketamine and postoperative pain--a quantitative systematic review of randomised trials {{http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=15621365}}</ref>. This combination may be used in the treatment of migraine, and is effective in treating the pain associated with cancers<ref>{{http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=10228376}}</ref>.

Most available anaesthetics suppress the respiratory and circulatory systems, making them potentially dangerous to use on patients with an unknown medical history. Ketamine, however, stimulates these systems at anaesthetic doses, meaning less risk of heart failure, shock and asphyxiation during minor surgery<ref>S-(+)-ketamine. Circulatory interactions during total intravenous anesthesia and analgesia-sedation{{http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=9451493}}</ref>.

Ketamine is also in clinical trials for use as an antidepressant, and as an aid in breaking addiction to other recreational drugs. Along with other drugs of its type, abuse produces symptoms which are used as a clinical model for research into schizophrenia.

== In Animals ==

As a vetinary drug, ketamine is used on small animals in a similar capacity to that of humans, as well as as a continuous infusion analgesic to prevent the animal becoming aggressive due to pain. It is also used for pain management in large animals, particularly horses (hence the common colloquial description of the drug as a “horse tranquiliser” amongst those who are opposed to its use as a recreational drug.

= Pharmacology and Neurological effects =

Ketamine is a non-competitive antagonist of the NMDA receptor. NDMA receptors are present throughout the body, particularly the brain and spinal chord. They are particularly active during pain responses, hence the analgesic effect of ketamine blocking the receptors.
Ketamine is synthesized as a racemic mix. The S-enantiomer has approximately four times the binding affinity to the NMDA receptor of the R-enantiomer<ref>Properties of Ketamine {{http://sulcus.berkeley.edu/mcb/165_001/papers/manuscripts/_962.html}}</ref>. As it also has less side effects, it is sometimes preferred to the racemic mix for surgery<ref name="wiki" />.

As a recreational drug, it produces short-lived hallucinogenic effects, which are only visible against backgrounds such as darkness which have little sensory stimulation. Hallucinogenic effects only last around 15 minutes, with the associated analgesia lasting around 2 hours maximum. The “trip” brought on by recreational use of ketamine is described as:

<blockquote>
Effects include changes in the perception of distances, relative scale, colour and durations/time, as well as a slowing of the visual system's ability to update what the user is seeing. There are reports of high-dosage users being able to see their surroundings in two sharp images, as if the brain is unable to merge the images each eye is sending. Speech often sounds unintelligible i.e. alogia, and auditory hallucinations may occur. At high doses sounds can be out of sync with the user's visual field. Ketamine at high doses produces a dissociative state, characterised by a sense of detachment from one's physical body and the external world[...] Some users may not remember this part of the experience after regaining consciousness, in the same way that a person may forget a dream. Owing to the role of the NMDA receptor in long-term potentiation, this may be due to disturbances in memory formation. The "re-integration" process is slow, and the user gradually becomes aware of surroundings. At first, users may not remember their own names, or even know that they are human, or what that means. Movement is extremely difficult, and a user may not be aware that he or she has a body at all.

—''[[Ketamine]]'', on [[Wikpedia]]
</blockquote>

Ketamine’s effects on the brain have been shown to take place in the Hippocampus (long-term memory and spatial navigation centre) and prefrontal cortex (alertness and emotional response centre). This explains the side effect of memory loss, and the spatial hallucinations experienced by recreational users. The prefrontal cortex also regulates the areas of the brain responsible for consciousness, hence the detachment and anesthesia experienced by high-dose users.

=Recreactional Use=

Recreational use of Ketamine was first reported in 1965. It can be purchased over the counter in veterinary clinics in Mexico, where it is then diverted and sold for recreational use.

Ketamine can be insufflated, injected, or ingested dissolved in beverages. It can also be smoked, usually mixed with marijuana or tobacco. Oral administration produces a longer trip, but requires a larger dose. Injection is relatively uncommon, although possible. Smoking ketamine produces a faster high than other methods.

=== References ===
<references />

It07:Ketamine

2007-12-05T15:13:40Z

Jms206: /* Recreactional Use */

= Ketamine =

<noinclude>

</noinclude>{| class="toccolours" border="1" style="float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border-collapse: collapse; width: 280px"
! {{chembox header}} | Ketamine
|-
| align="center" colspan="2" bgcolor="#ffffff" | [[Image:Ketamine.gif]] 
|-
! {{chembox header}} | General
|-
| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IUPAC Systematic name]
| 2-(2-chlorophenyl)-2-methylamino-cyclohexan-1-one

|-
| Other names
| Ketamine, K, Special K, Vitamin K
|-
| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_formula Molecular formula]
| C13H16ClNO
|-
| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molar_mass Molar mass]
| 237.725gmol-1
|-
| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CAS_registry_number CAS number]
| 6740-88-1
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Properties
|-

|-
| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boiling_point Boiling point]
| 266°C

|-
|}

Ketamine (2-(2-chlorophenyl)-2-methylamino-cyclohexan-1-one) is a dissasociative anaesthetic. It is widely used as a large animal tranquiliser in vetinary medicine, and a cheap, effective medicine for battlefield treatment in developing countries. It is also used recreationally, and is a class C illegal drug. The compound itself is enantiomeric, with the S-form being more physiologically active in humans<ref name="wiki">Ketamine on Wikipedia {{http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketamine}}</ref>.

= History =

Ketamine was developed as an alternative anaesthetic to PCP (Phencyclidine), after it was discovered that the latter caused hallucinations, mania, delirium and dissociation, as well as being neurotoxic<ref>PCP on Wikipedia {{http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phencyclidine}}</ref>. It was first synthesised in 1962 by Calvin Stevens, and was found in clinical (animal) trials as “the most promising of 200 PCP derivatives”<ref>MetroHealth Medical Center Campus of Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Anaesthesia section, history of Ketamine {{http://www.metrohealthanesthesia.com/edu/ivanes/ketamine1.htm}}</ref>. Human use, both medicinal and recreational was first reported in 1965, with the drug being officially released for clinical use in 1970. There was extensive reported use on American soldiers during the Vietnam war <ref>Ketamine in war/tropical surgery {{http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=12091028}}</ref>. In 1999, the drug was made a Schedule III controlled substance in the USA, primarily because of its applications as a date-rape drug. Following this, recreational use of ketamine has been made illegal in Hong Kong, Canada, and the UK (where it was made a class C drug in January 2006).

= Medical Use =

{| bgcolor="#ffffff" border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" align="right" width="167px" style="border-collapse: collapse; clear: right; margin: 0 0 0 0.5em"

|-
|'''[[Contraindication]]s:''' 
*Alcohol
*Other sedatives
*Stimulants
|-
|'''Side effects:'''
'''''Severe:'''''
*Detatchment from reality
*Sight impairment
*Loss of balance
*Distorted sense of time

'''''Cardiovascular:'''''
*Partial depressant

'''''Gastrointestinal:'''''
*Nausea

'''''Musculo skeletal:'''''
*Relaxant
*High doses - Perceived paralysis

'''''Neurological:'''''
*Analgesia
*Anasthesia
*Extended abuse - Memory loss

'''''Respiratory:'''''
*Partial depressant/stimulant
|}

== In Humans ==
As a medicinal drug, ketamine is injected intravenously or intramuscularly, usually as a general anaesthetic. It may also be used in small doses as a local anaesthetic, however, where it counteracts pain caused by altered/damaged nerve pathways (neuropathic pain), or repetitive neuron firing, such as in spinal sensitisation<ref>Topical amitriptyline and ketamine in neuropathic pain syndromes: an open-label study {{http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=16202956}}</ref>. Because the doses are so low in these cases, the side effects can be managed easily with other medication (usually benzodiazapene). These pain relieving (analgesic) effects are much more effective when the ketamine is combined with low-dose opioids, such as codiene<ref>Ketamine and postoperative pain--a quantitative systematic review of randomised trials {{http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=15621365}}</ref>. This combination may be used in the treatment of migraine, and is effective in treating the pain associated with cancers<ref>{{http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=10228376}}</ref>.

Most available anaesthetics suppress the respiratory and circulatory systems, making them potentially dangerous to use on patients with an unknown medical history. Ketamine, however, stimulates these systems at anaesthetic doses, meaning less risk of heart failure, shock and asphyxiation during minor surgery<ref>S-(+)-ketamine. Circulatory interactions during total intravenous anesthesia and analgesia-sedation{{http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=9451493}}</ref>.

Ketamine is also in clinical trials for use as an antidepressant, and as an aid in breaking addiction to other recreational drugs. Along with other drugs of its type, abuse produces symptoms which are used as a clinical model for research into schizophrenia.

== In Animals ==

As a vetinary drug, ketamine is used on small animals in a similar capacity to that of humans, as well as as a continuous infusion analgesic to prevent the animal becoming aggressive due to pain. It is also used for pain management in large animals, particularly horses (hence the common colloquial description of the drug as a “horse tranquiliser” amongst those who are opposed to its use as a recreational drug.

= Pharmacology and Neurological effects =

Ketamine is a non-competitive antagonist of the NMDA receptor. NDMA receptors are present throughout the body, particularly the brain and spinal chord. They are particularly active during pain responses, hence the analgesic effect of ketamine blocking the receptors.
Ketamine is synthesized as a racemic mix. The S-enantiomer has approximately four times the binding affinity to the NMDA receptor of the R-enantiomer<ref>Properties of Ketamine {{http://sulcus.berkeley.edu/mcb/165_001/papers/manuscripts/_962.html}}</ref>. As it also has less side effects, it is sometimes preferred to the racemic mix for surgery<ref name="wiki" />.

As a recreational drug, it produces short-lived hallucinogenic effects, which are only visible against backgrounds such as darkness which have little sensory stimulation. Hallucinogenic effects only last around 15 minutes, with the associated analgesia lasting around 2 hours maximum. The “trip” brought on by recreational use of ketamine is described as:

<blockquote>
Effects include changes in the perception of distances, relative scale, colour and durations/time, as well as a slowing of the visual system's ability to update what the user is seeing. There are reports of high-dosage users being able to see their surroundings in two sharp images, as if the brain is unable to merge the images each eye is sending. Speech often sounds unintelligible i.e. alogia, and auditory hallucinations may occur. At high doses sounds can be out of sync with the user's visual field. Ketamine at high doses produces a dissociative state, characterised by a sense of detachment from one's physical body and the external world[...] Some users may not remember this part of the experience after regaining consciousness, in the same way that a person may forget a dream. Owing to the role of the NMDA receptor in long-term potentiation, this may be due to disturbances in memory formation. The "re-integration" process is slow, and the user gradually becomes aware of surroundings. At first, users may not remember their own names, or even know that they are human, or what that means. Movement is extremely difficult, and a user may not be aware that he or she has a body at all.

—''[[Ketamine]]'', on [[Wikpedia]]
</blockquote>

Ketamine’s effects on the brain have been shown to take place in the Hippocampus (long-term memory and spatial navigation centre) and prefrontal cortex (alertness and emotional response centre). This explains the side effect of memory loss, and the spatial hallucinations experienced by recreational users. The prefrontal cortex also regulates the areas of the brain responsible for consciousness, hence the detachment and anesthesia experienced by high-dose users.

=Recreactional Use=

Recreational use of Ketamine was first reported in 1965. It can be purchased over the counter in veterinary clinics in Mexico, where it is then diverted and sold for recreational use.

Ketamine can be insufflated, injected, or ingested dissolved in beverages. It can also be smoked, usually mixed with marijuana or tobacco. Oral administration produces a longer trip, but requires a larger dose. Injection is relatively uncommon, although possible. Smoking ketamine produces a faster high than other methods.

=== References ===
<references />

It07:Ketamine

2007-12-05T15:07:06Z

Jms206: /* Ketamine */

= Ketamine =

<noinclude>

</noinclude>{| class="toccolours" border="1" style="float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border-collapse: collapse; width: 280px"
! {{chembox header}} | Ketamine
|-
| align="center" colspan="2" bgcolor="#ffffff" | [[Image:Ketamine.gif]] 
|-
! {{chembox header}} | General
|-
| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IUPAC Systematic name]
| 2-(2-chlorophenyl)-2-methylamino-cyclohexan-1-one

|-
| Other names
| Ketamine, K, Special K, Vitamin K
|-
| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_formula Molecular formula]
| C13H16ClNO
|-
| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molar_mass Molar mass]
| 237.725gmol-1
|-
| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CAS_registry_number CAS number]
| 6740-88-1
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Properties
|-

|-
| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boiling_point Boiling point]
| 266°C

|-
|}

Ketamine (2-(2-chlorophenyl)-2-methylamino-cyclohexan-1-one) is a dissasociative anaesthetic. It is widely used as a large animal tranquiliser in vetinary medicine, and a cheap, effective medicine for battlefield treatment in developing countries. It is also used recreationally, and is a class C illegal drug. The compound itself is enantiomeric, with the S-form being more physiologically active in humans<ref name="wiki">Ketamine on Wikipedia {{http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketamine}}</ref>.

= History =

Ketamine was developed as an alternative anaesthetic to PCP (Phencyclidine), after it was discovered that the latter caused hallucinations, mania, delirium and dissociation, as well as being neurotoxic<ref>PCP on Wikipedia {{http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phencyclidine}}</ref>. It was first synthesised in 1962 by Calvin Stevens, and was found in clinical (animal) trials as “the most promising of 200 PCP derivatives”<ref>MetroHealth Medical Center Campus of Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Anaesthesia section, history of Ketamine {{http://www.metrohealthanesthesia.com/edu/ivanes/ketamine1.htm}}</ref>. Human use, both medicinal and recreational was first reported in 1965, with the drug being officially released for clinical use in 1970. There was extensive reported use on American soldiers during the Vietnam war <ref>Ketamine in war/tropical surgery {{http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=12091028}}</ref>. In 1999, the drug was made a Schedule III controlled substance in the USA, primarily because of its applications as a date-rape drug. Following this, recreational use of ketamine has been made illegal in Hong Kong, Canada, and the UK (where it was made a class C drug in January 2006).

= Medical Use =

{| bgcolor="#ffffff" border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" align="right" width="167px" style="border-collapse: collapse; clear: right; margin: 0 0 0 0.5em"

|-
|'''[[Contraindication]]s:''' 
*Alcohol
*Other sedatives
*Stimulants
|-
|'''Side effects:'''
'''''Severe:'''''
*Detatchment from reality
*Sight impairment
*Loss of balance
*Distorted sense of time

'''''Cardiovascular:'''''
*Partial depressant

'''''Gastrointestinal:'''''
*Nausea

'''''Musculo skeletal:'''''
*Relaxant
*High doses - Perceived paralysis

'''''Neurological:'''''
*Analgesia
*Anasthesia
*Extended abuse - Memory loss

'''''Respiratory:'''''
*Partial depressant/stimulant
|}

== In Humans ==
As a medicinal drug, ketamine is injected intravenously or intramuscularly, usually as a general anaesthetic. It may also be used in small doses as a local anaesthetic, however, where it counteracts pain caused by altered/damaged nerve pathways (neuropathic pain), or repetitive neuron firing, such as in spinal sensitisation<ref>Topical amitriptyline and ketamine in neuropathic pain syndromes: an open-label study {{http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=16202956}}</ref>. Because the doses are so low in these cases, the side effects can be managed easily with other medication (usually benzodiazapene). These pain relieving (analgesic) effects are much more effective when the ketamine is combined with low-dose opioids, such as codiene<ref>Ketamine and postoperative pain--a quantitative systematic review of randomised trials {{http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=15621365}}</ref>. This combination may be used in the treatment of migraine, and is effective in treating the pain associated with cancers<ref>{{http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=10228376}}</ref>.

Most available anaesthetics suppress the respiratory and circulatory systems, making them potentially dangerous to use on patients with an unknown medical history. Ketamine, however, stimulates these systems at anaesthetic doses, meaning less risk of heart failure, shock and asphyxiation during minor surgery<ref>S-(+)-ketamine. Circulatory interactions during total intravenous anesthesia and analgesia-sedation{{http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=9451493}}</ref>.

Ketamine is also in clinical trials for use as an antidepressant, and as an aid in breaking addiction to other recreational drugs. Along with other drugs of its type, abuse produces symptoms which are used as a clinical model for research into schizophrenia.

== In Animals ==

As a vetinary drug, ketamine is used on small animals in a similar capacity to that of humans, as well as as a continuous infusion analgesic to prevent the animal becoming aggressive due to pain. It is also used for pain management in large animals, particularly horses (hence the common colloquial description of the drug as a “horse tranquiliser” amongst those who are opposed to its use as a recreational drug.

= Pharmacology and Neurological effects =

Ketamine is a non-competitive antagonist of the NMDA receptor. NDMA receptors are present throughout the body, particularly the brain and spinal chord. They are particularly active during pain responses, hence the analgesic effect of ketamine blocking the receptors.
Ketamine is synthesized as a racemic mix. The S-enantiomer has approximately four times the binding affinity to the NMDA receptor of the R-enantiomer<ref>Properties of Ketamine {{http://sulcus.berkeley.edu/mcb/165_001/papers/manuscripts/_962.html}}</ref>. As it also has less side effects, it is sometimes preferred to the racemic mix for surgery<ref name="wiki" />.

As a recreational drug, it produces short-lived hallucinogenic effects, which are only visible against backgrounds such as darkness which have little sensory stimulation. Hallucinogenic effects only last around 15 minutes, with the associated analgesia lasting around 2 hours maximum. The “trip” brought on by recreational use of ketamine is described as:

<blockquote>
Effects include changes in the perception of distances, relative scale, colour and durations/time, as well as a slowing of the visual system's ability to update what the user is seeing. There are reports of high-dosage users being able to see their surroundings in two sharp images, as if the brain is unable to merge the images each eye is sending. Speech often sounds unintelligible i.e. alogia, and auditory hallucinations may occur. At high doses sounds can be out of sync with the user's visual field. Ketamine at high doses produces a dissociative state, characterised by a sense of detachment from one's physical body and the external world[...] Some users may not remember this part of the experience after regaining consciousness, in the same way that a person may forget a dream. Owing to the role of the NMDA receptor in long-term potentiation, this may be due to disturbances in memory formation. The "re-integration" process is slow, and the user gradually becomes aware of surroundings. At first, users may not remember their own names, or even know that they are human, or what that means. Movement is extremely difficult, and a user may not be aware that he or she has a body at all.

—''[[Ketamine]]'', on [[Wikpedia]]
</blockquote>

Ketamine’s effects on the brain have been shown to take place in the Hippocampus (long-term memory and spatial navigation centre) and prefrontal cortex (alertness and emotional response centre). This explains the side effect of memory loss, and the spatial hallucinations experienced by recreational users. The prefrontal cortex also regulates the areas of the brain responsible for consciousness, hence the detachment and anesthesia experienced by high-dose users.

=Recreactional Use=

Recreational use of Ketamine was first reported in 1965. It can be purchased over the counter in veterinary clinics in Mexico, where it is then diverted and sold for recreational use.

Ketamine can be insufflated, injected, or ingested dissolved in beverages. It can also be smoked, usually mixed with marijuana or tobacco. Oral administration produces a longer trip, but requires a larger dose. Injection is relatively uncommon, although possible. Smoking ketamine produces a faster high than other methods.

It07:Ketamine

2007-12-05T14:26:53Z

Jms206: /* Tetrahydrocannabinol */

It07:Ketamine

2007-12-05T14:20:26Z

Jms206: New page: = Tetrahydrocannabinol = <noinclude> <!-- This template has been defined after elaborate discussion in the Chemicals Wikiproject. Please do not add, deleted or otherwise change it unless ...

= Tetrahydrocannabinol =

<noinclude>

</noinclude>{| class="toccolours" border="1" style="float: right; clear: right; margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border-collapse: collapse; width: 280px"
! {{chembox header}} | Ketamine
|-
| align="center" colspan="2" bgcolor="#ffffff" | [[Image:Ketamine.gif]] 
|-
! {{chembox header}} | General
|-
| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IUPAC Systematic name]
| 2-(2-chlorophenyl)-2-methylamino-cyclohexan-1-one

|-
| Other names
| Ketamine, K, Special K, Vitamin K
|-
| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_formula Molecular formula]
| C13H16ClNO
|-
| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molar_mass Molar mass]
| 237.725gmol-1
|-
| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CAS_registry_number CAS number]
| 6740-88-1
|-
! {{chembox header}} | Properties
|-

|-
| [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boiling_point Boiling point]
| 266°C

|-
|}

Ketamine (2-(2-chlorophenyl)-2-methylamino-cyclohexan-1-one) is a dissasociative anaesthetic. It is widely used as a large animal tranquiliser in vetinary medicine, and a cheap, effective medicine for battlefield treatment in developing countries. It is also used recreationally, and is a class C illegal drug. The compound itself is enantiomeric, with the S-form being more physiologically active in humans<ref>Ketamine on Wikipedia {{http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ketamine}}</ref>.

File:Ketamine.gif

2007-12-05T14:19:58Z

Jms206:

File:Ketamine.bmp

2007-12-05T14:17:36Z

Jms206:

It:projects

2007-12-05T13:46:41Z

Jms206: /* Supplemental Project Page */

__FORCETOC__

'''''You MUST use the Edit buttons on the right to edit this content. Do NOT use the Edit button on the top of this page.'''''
== Sandbox (Play-Pen) ==

This is an area where you can play without worrying what you do. Enter it by pressing the [Edit] button '''on the right''' and '''not''' at the top. Go here for a [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Cheatsheet ''cheat sheet''] summary of how to create a Wiki page. It's a free-for-all in here! Learn how to use a Wiki by coming here! PS This is how to do Greek:α, β Δ, δ
Try copying/pasting some of the [http://www.ch.ic.ac.uk/local/it/lab1.html examples in the course work] into this page. See the effect by selecting '''Show Preview'''. Do not use '''Save Page''' so as to leave this area uncluttered for others.
----
{| summary="CIT Project Titles" border="1"
|NEW: This demonstrates the use of Jmol loading discrete molecule files (rather than having to paste them into the wiki page). Upload the molecule file, and invoke it as shown here. Use it for eg loading large proteins etc.--[[User:Rzepa|Rzepa]] 16:07, 4 December 2006 (UTC) and --[[User:Rzepa|Rzepa]] 07:41, 16 October 2007 (BST) and --[[User:Rzepa|Rzepa]] 15:56, 18 October 2007 (BST)

If no rotatable molecule appears to the right there my be a problem in the browser cache - reload the page bypassing the cache using ctrl+F5. If this doesn't work check that [http://www.java.com/en/download/help/testvm.xml Java] is correctly functioning on your system.

===References ===
This shows how citations<ref>Example of adding a citation {{DOI|10.1021/ja9825332}}</ref> can be added to
text<ref>adding a further citation {{DOI|10.1021/ja9825332}}</ref> to produce a nice effect.

===Multiple uses of the same footnote ===

The code for citing multiple quotes from the same source can be found [http://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Cite/Cite.php here]. This stops the same reference being stated multiple times at the bottom of the page when you try to reference more than one item from the same source.

=== Collected citations appear below here ===
<references />--[[User:Rzepa|Rzepa]] 15:18, 25 October 2007 (BST)
|<jmol>
<jmolApplet>
<title>Pentahelicene</title><color>yellow</color><size>200</size>
<script>zoom 80; cpk on;frame 1; move 10 -20 10 0 0 0 0 0 3; delay 1;</script>
<uploadedFileContents>Pentahelicene.mol</uploadedFileContents>
</jmolApplet>
<jmolMenu>
<item><text>Start spinning</text><script>spin on</script></item>
<item><text>Stop spinning</text><script>spin off</script></item>
<menuHeight>-1</menuHeight>
</jmolMenu>
<jmolButton>
<script>console</script>
<text>open a console window</text>
</jmolButton>
</jmol>
<jmol><jmolAppletButton><title>Show CIYSIM.cif in popup window</title><color>cyan</color>
<uploadedFileContents>CIYSIM.cif</uploadedFileContents></jmolAppletButton>
</jmol>
|}

== Main Project Page ==

'''''URGENT Announcement'''''

Whilst the Wiki itself is pretty robust, and although it is difficult to break a page on it, this did happen a few days ago to project 12. What seems to have happened is that some ''bad'' code (HTML or XML) was copied from another Web page, and pasted into the project 12 page. The Wiki system could not cope with this particular bad code, and sulked. Fortunately, by invoking appropriate magic, the page has now been restored to its state prior to the breakage, and I have learnt a valuable lesson in how to fix it if this happens again. So this serves as a warning; if you are copying/pasting blind from other web pages (which in general you should not be doing), you do run the risk of breaking the page. Hopefully, the break will be detected during the preview, and serves to remind that you should ''always'' preview before saving to detect any such breaks. --[[User:Rzepa|Rzepa]] 10:21, 28 November 2007 (UTC)

'''Please do not edit this page itself'''. Click on one of the titles to start editing.
{| summary="CIT Project Titles" border="1"
! bgcolor="cyan" |Project Number
! bgcolor="cyan" |General Keywords
|-
| bgcolor="#CCFF00" |01
| bgcolor="#CCFF00" | [[it07:Lignocaine|Lignocaine (used in dentistry as a "local")]]
|-
| bgcolor="#CCFF00" |02
| bgcolor="#66FF99" | [[it07:Piperine|Piperine (active ingredient of both black and white pepper)]]
|-
| bgcolor="#CCFF00" |03
| bgcolor="#CCFF00" | [[it07:Rapamycin|Rapamycin (prevents transplant rejection)]]
|-
| bgcolor="#CCFF00" |04
| bgcolor="#66FF99" | [[it07:Gossypol|Gossypol (male birth control)]]
|-
| bgcolor="#CCFF00" |05
| bgcolor="#CCFF00" | [[it07:Gentamycin|Gentamicin A (aminoglycoside antibiotic)]]
|-
| bgcolor="#CCFF00" |06
| bgcolor="#66FF99" | [[it07:Herceptin|Herceptin (topical anticancer drug)]]
|-
| bgcolor="#CCFF00" |07
| bgcolor="#CCFF00" | [[it07:Gingerone|Zingerone (the characteristic smell of ginger)]]
|-
| bgcolor="#CCFF00" |08
| bgcolor="#66FF99" | [[it07:Sucralose|Sucralose (non-metabolizable sweetening agent)]]
|-
| bgcolor="#CCFF00" |09
| bgcolor="#CCFF00" | [[it07:Bufotoxin|Bufotoxin (active component of the toad ''Bufo vulgaris'')]]
|-
| bgcolor="#CCFF00" |10
| bgcolor="#66FF99" | [[it07:Roaccutane|Roaccutane (treatment for severe acne)]]
|-
| bgcolor="#CCFF00" |11
| bgcolor="#CCFF00" | [[it07:Sibutramine|Sibutramine (appetite suppresor)]]
|-
| bgcolor="#CCFF00" |12
| bgcolor="#66FF99" | [[it07a:Anandamide|Anandamide (the "feel-good" factor in chocolate)]]
|-
| bgcolor="#CCFF00" |13
| bgcolor="#CCFF00" | [[it07:h3nbh3|Ammonia-borane: H3N-BH3 (Hydrogen storage molecule?)]]
|-
| bgcolor="#CCFF00" |14
| bgcolor="#66FF99" | [[it07:Methoxsalen|Methoxsalen (Treatment of psoriasis)]]
|-
| bgcolor="#CCFF00" |15
| bgcolor="#CCFF00" | [[it07:Hycocine|Hyoscine (From Mandrake and Witches Henbane, pre-med before surgery)]]
|-
| bgcolor="#CCFF00" |16
| bgcolor="#66FF99" | [[it07:Capreomycin|Capreomycin (Drug-resistant TB)]]
|-
| bgcolor="#CCFF00" |17
| bgcolor="#CCFF00" | [[it07:wilkinson|Wilkinson's catalyst]]
|-
| bgcolor="#CCFF00" |18
| bgcolor="#66FF99" | [[it07:Jacobsen|Jacobsen's epoxidation catalyst]]
|-
| bgcolor="#CCFF00" |19
| bgcolor="#CCFF00" | [[it07:Methylaluminoxane|Methylaluminoxane: MAO - hugely important ethylene polymerisation cocatalyst]]
|-
| bgcolor="#CCFF00" |20
| bgcolor="#66FF99" | [[it07:Schwartz|Schwartz reagent for the hydrozirconation of alkenes and alkynes]]
|-
| bgcolor="#CCFF00" |21
| bgcolor="#CCFF00" | [[it07:Schrock|Schrock metathesis catalyst]]
|-
| bgcolor="#CCFF00" |22
| bgcolor="#66FF99" | [[it07:knots|Molecular-scale knots (nanoscale devices)]]
|-
|bgcolor="#CCFF00" |23
| bgcolor="#CCFF00" | [[it07:Vioxx|Vioxx (treatment of osteoarthritis symptoms and pain)]]
|-
| bgcolor="#CCFF00" |24
| bgcolor="#66FF99" | [[it07:Sertraline|Sertraline HCl (anti-depression)]]
|-
| bgcolor="#CCFF00" |25
| bgcolor="#CCFF00" | [[it07:Ceftriaxone|Ceftriaxone (Gonorrhoea)]]
|-
| bgcolor="#CCFF00" |26
| bgcolor="#66FF99" | [[i07t:Zithromycin|Zithromycin (anti-infective)]]
|-
| bgcolor="#CCFF00" |27
| bgcolor="#CCFF00" | [[it07:Lipitor|Lipitor (Cholesterol reducing agent)]]
|-
| bgcolor="#CCFF00" |28
| bgcolor="#66FF99" | [[it07:Cyameluric Acid|Cyameluric acid (Linus Pauling's last idea!)]]
|}

== Supplemental Project Page ==

This area is for people who wish to create their own projects if none of the above appeal to them. Click on the '''Edit''' button to the right to open up an editable page,
then add an entry below as follows

*<nowiki> [[it07:name_of_project|Descriptive name of intended project]]</nowiki>
*This will produce the effect: [[it07:name_of_project|Descriptive name of intended project]]
----
#[[it07:sitagliptin_page|An example entry- in edit mode, please copy this line and paste below to add to this list]]
#[[it07:Limonene|Limonene]]
#[[it07:name_of_project|Vitamin C ]]
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#[[it07:oxazaborolidines|Chiral Oxazaborolidines as Catalysts]]
#[[it07:RDX|RDX (chemical in plastic explosives)]]
#[[it07:Lysergic Acid|Lysergic Acid]]
#[[it07:Oseltamivir Phosphate|Oseltamivir Phosphate(Tamiflu)]]
#[[Fluoxetine Hydrochloride (Prozac)]]
#[[Dimethylmercury]]
#[[it07:Sorafenib(Nexavar®)|Sorafenib (Nexavar®)]]
#[[Rapamycin]]
#[[Rohypnol]]
#[[it07:Vitamin A|Vitamin A (Retinol)]]
#[[it07:THC|Tetrahydrocannabinol]]
#[[2,4-Dinitrophenylhydrazine|2,4-Dinitrophenylhydrazine]]
#[[Acetylcholine]]
#[[it07:Phenolphthalein|Phenolphthalein]]
#[[Carbon Dioxide]]
#[[Domoic Acid]]
#[[Kevlar]]
#[[it07:Erythromycin|Erythromycin]]
#[[it07:DIBAL|DIBAL]]
#[[Ephedrine]]
#[[it07:Lactose|Lactose]]
#[[it07:Thyjone|Thyjone]]
#[[Levothyroxine]]
#[[it07:Tropinone|Tropinone]]
#[[it07:Ozone|Ozone]]
#[[it07:Indinavir|Indinavir (Crixivan®)]]
#[[it07:Tetrodotoxin|Tetrodotoxin]]
#[[it07:Astaxanthin|Astaxanthin]]
#[[Methane]]
#[[it07:2 – Chlorobenzalmalononitrile|2 – Chlorobenzalmalononitrile (CS Gas)]]
#[[it07:Dichloro-Diphenyl-Trichloroethane|Dichloro-Diphenyl-Trichloroethane]]
#[[it07:Ketamine|Ketamine]]

== Wiki Templates ==

[[Template:DOI]] and [[Template:Doi-inline]] are providea as (protected) templates for your use. Many other templates exist, often to be found on e.g. Wikipedia pages. You may decide one of these is of particular use, or of interest. If so, you can install it on the wiki here for you and others to use. Add below a line that looks like Template:Template-name, save, and click on the red text to create the new template. If you prefer the task of adding useful templates to that of adding information about molecules, then you will be given full credit for performing this valuable service for others! --Rzepa 14:41, 20 October 2006 (BST)

[[Template:Chem-Data]]

[[Template:Drug-Box]] - For pharmaceutical drugs just copy variable names and code generates tables

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[[Template:NFPA_704]] - for notes on how to use, see [[Template_talk:NFPA_704|here]]

[[R & S Phrases]]

[[Template:Chembox new]]